1890-1910 Petticoats, Part 3: Shapes

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Petticoat Fabrics, Trims & When to Wear Them

The material for a petticoat (and for underskirts too) should be determined by the style, fabric and formality of the outer ensemble.

“The outer garments that a woman wears generally govern the kind of material that should be used for the petticoats. If the outer skirts are clinging and the lines very straight, then very soft fabrics should be selected for the petticoats; if the skirts are full from the knees to the bottom and hang full and fluffy around the feet, soft, clingy petticoats with many flounces and ruffles should be worn; if the outer skirts have a decided flare at the bottom and the flare extends from the waist line, then the petticoat itself should be made almost as full as the outside skirt and of material that will give graceful lines and at the same time serve to hold the dress out well.” [Picken 21-22]

Many, many fabrics are mentioned for making petticoats. According to classifications in both Plain Underwear and Clothing for Women (both 1916 sewing manuals) the fabrics fall into two categories: washable and not washable. These categories mostly align with the idea of plain fabrics versus fancy fabrics, although some of the “plain” fabrics also appear alongside the fancy fabrics in advertisements, which suggest those could be used in either situation. It seems likely to me that the fancy, non-washable fabrics are being recommended as underskirt material, rather then petticoat material, but the conflation of terminology makes that a hypothetical distinction.

Neither petticoats nor underskirts are necessarily made of only one fabric. Both the Embroidered Petticoat and the Lacy Petticoat are made with two different weights of white cotton. Sewing manuals mention the cost savings of finishing an underskirt with flounces of a fancier, more desirable material. The materials chosen affect the when the petticoat is appropriate to wear and what it should be worn with. Similarly, the material chosen also has an effect on what decoration is considered suitable for the petticoat. Below is the list of all the fabrics I found mentioned as petticoat and underskirt materials, along with what descriptions I could find regarding the fabric and its use.

Washable Materials	Description and Recommended Uses
Batiste	A plain-weave linen or cotton fabric that is fine, light, and translucent.[Affleck and Herbaugh, 44] This was mentioned in a list of underskirt materials described as flimsy and flounce-able [Cunnington, A History of Underclothes 213]
Cambric (also called Berkeley Cambric)	A plain-weave linen or cotton fabric that is fine, light, and has a heavily glazed finish.[Affleck and Herbaugh, 44] Clothing for Women (a 1916 sewing manual) says that, “Berkeley cambric and longcloth are suitable for petticoats to wear with cotton and linen dresses. Tucked flounces or bands of the same material may be used for simple decoration, or the flounces may be made of fine nainsook, batiste or Swiss, decorated with lace or stitching; embroidered flouncing may be used.” [Baldt 272]
Chambray	A plain-weave cotton fabric made with a colored warp and a white weft. “As a plainweave, the fabric gives the impression of a single color softened in tone by the white”[Affleck and Herbaugh, 49] The 1916 sewing manual Clothing for Women says that, “Percale and chambray sometimes have a season of popularity. Both are very durable. Chambray is softer in finish ... Both materials may be trimmed with bands or ruffles. Scalloping, in white, on pink or blue chambray, is attractive. A durable flounce for a striped percale or chambray petticoat can be made of heavy white curtain net, edged with bands of the material and finished at the top with the same ... the color of chambray does not hold quite as well [in laundering] as percale.” [Baldt 272-274]
Cotton Crêpe or Crape	Crêpe, poplin, piqué and sateen are different from the rest of the washable materials because they are not plain-woven. Cotton crêpe is a cotton fabric with a crêpe weave which creates a slightly pebbly surface. [Affleck and Herbaugh, 33] Clothing for Women says that, “Cotton crêpe is suitable for wear with dresses through which the texture of the material will not show. Its chief recommendation is its light weight and the fact that it requires no ironing.”[Baldt 272]
Cotton Poplin	Crêpe, poplin, piqué and sateen are different from the rest of the washable materials because they are not plain-woven. Poplin was a ribbed fabric (of any fiber). Imagine a fine grosgrain ribbon, or silk faille for the texture.[Affleck and Herbaugh, 28] Clothing for Women says that, “Cotton poplin and piqué make a heavier skirt, warmer because so closely woven, but recommend themselves because shadowproof. Because of their weight and thickness, only an edge trimming is possible, embroidered scallops, or a plain or shaped hem.” [Baldt 272]
Gingham	Plain-weave, tightly woven yarn-dyed cotton. The pattern utilizes the yarn-dyed quality. It could be many things, but a checked gingham (like Dorothy’s pinafore in The Wizard of Oz) was, and still is, a common pattern. [Affleck and Herbaugh, 48] This fabric is mentioned in a list of materials for practical petticoats.[Picken 22]
Lawn	A plain-weave linen or cotton fabric that is fine, lightweight, and sheer. “It is stiffer and firmer than batiste but not as sheer as organdy.”[Affleck and Herbaugh, 44] Plain Underwear recommends using flowered lawn (which is presumably a printed lawn) as a practical petticoat.[Picken 22] Lawn is also included in a list of desirable petticoat materials described as flimsy and flounce-able.[Cunnington, A History of Underclothes 213]
Longcloth	I was not able to find a period description of this material, but in 1923 it was defined as a “light-weight, unfinished, bleached muslin free from starch or sizing. Easy to sew and launders well. White and lingerie colors. Uses: underwear and linings. Weave: plain.”[Denny 76] Clothing for Women (a 1916 sewing manual) says that, “Berkeley cambric and longcloth are suitable for petticoats to wear with cotton and linen dresses. Tucked flounces or bands of the same material may be used for simple decoration, or the flounces may be made of fine nainsook, batiste or Swiss, decorated with lace or stitching; embroidered flouncing may be used.”[Baldt 272]
Muslin, sheer	Muslin was a generic term of a thin plain-weave cotton fabric.[Affleck and Herbaugh, 44] All of the washable fabrics mentioned for petticoats, except cotton crêpe, poplin, piqué and sateen fall into the “muslin” category. Plain Underwear lists sheer muslin as a fancy material to make a washable petticoat out of.[Picken 22]
Muslin, raw or unbleached	Muslin was a generic term of a thin plain-weave cotton fabric. [Affleck and Herbaugh, 44] All of the washable fabrics mentioned for petticoats, except cotton crêpe, poplin, piqué and sateen fall into the “muslin” category. Raw or unbleached muslin was probably similar to modern unbleached muslin. Plain Undergarments mentions this in a list of materials for practical petticoats.[Picken 22]
Nainsook	A plain-weave linen or cotton fabric that has a glazed surface.[Affleck and Herbaugh, 44]It is generally found in a heavier weights than cambric or longcloth, although if they are the same weight the three fabrics are identical before the finishing is applied. [Denny 86] The 1916 sewing manual Clothing for Women says that, “Nainsook is suitable for the body of the garment only when worn as an outer petticoat or slip under lingerie or soft silk dresses.”[Baldt 272]
Percale	A plain weave linen or cotton fabric that is fine, and closely woven with a dull finish, similar to modern men’s shirting material.[Affleck and Herbaugh, 44] Clothing for Women says that, “Percale and chambray sometimes have a season of popularity. Both are very durable. Chambray is softer in finish; percale suggests stiffening, although it can be laundered without. Both materials may be trimmed with bands or ruffles … A durable flounce for a striped percale or chambray petticoat can be made of heavy white curtain net, edged with bands of the material and finished at the top with the same. Bands of striped percale, cut crosswise of the material, are more attractive than those cut bias. Percale skirts in black and white stripes stand endless laundering” [Baldt 272-274]
Piqué	Crêpe, poplin, piqué and sateen are different from the rest of the washable materials because they are not plain-woven. “The word piqué refers to structure. Piqué fabric is characterized by a pronounced quilted or puckered appearance in the form of crosswise ribs or a waffle like grid called birdseye.”[Greene 45] Clothing for Women says that, “Cotton poplin and piqué make a heavier skirt, warmer because so closely woven, but recommend themselves because shadowproof. Because of their weight and thickness, only an edge trimming is possible, embroidered scallops, or a plain or shaped hem.”[Baldt 272]
Sateen or Satine	Crêpe, poplin, piqué and sateen are different from the rest of the washable materials because they are not plain-woven. Sateen is a cotton fabric with a satin weave, made in imitation of silk satin. [Affleck and Herbaugh, 43] Plain Undergarments suggests that it is an affordable substitute for silk taffeta; it is not as attractive as silk taffeta, surah, and satin but it “give[s] excellent service. Sateen and percaline petticoats are often made with taffeta, satin, or messaline flounces, which finish makes such garments very satisfactory.” [Picken 22] Plain Undergarments lists sateen as non-washable, whereas Clothing for Women suggests that it may be used for both formal underskirts and practical petticoats and says that it is washable: “Sateen has a soft luster, is closely woven, but is much lighter in weight than poplin, and serves the same purpose as a single garment. It does not, however, retain its freshness and crispness as long as the poplin after frequent laundering. Because of its durability, it is also used in black and colors instead of silk for petticoats. Being soft in texture, a variety of decoration is possible, ruffles, bands, scallops.”[Baldt 272]
Silk Jersey	I was unable to find a period definition of silk jersey, but the 1923 book Fabrics defines jersey as “a plain knitted, not ribbed” [Denny 70] fabric. The same book says that silk jersey is also known as Milanese, which it defines as “a type of warp-knit fabric used in gloves and women’s underwear. Milanese has a distinctive diagonal cross effect.”[Denny 82] Plain Undergarments (1916) lists silk jersey as a fancy but washable fabric for petticoats.
Swiss	Textiles for Early Victorian Clothing 1850-1880 says that “Swiss machine embroidery was so fine it is difficult to distinguish from hand work.”[Greene 14] However, the 1923 book Fabrics says it is a “Fine, sheer, cotton fabric which may be plain or with dots or figures … Swiss is crisp or stiff without a luster.”[Denny 117] Thus in our time period the term may apply to the embroidery, or to the fabric the embroidery was done on. I think it was probably the embroidery because Swiss is mentioned as a trim material in multiple sources, including Clothing for Women, but it is not listed as material for the body of the petticoat.

Nearly half of the non-washable petticoats are silk. Instead of repeating myself for each fabric, Clothing for Women gives the following general guideline regarding silk petticoats:

“Silk is very generally used for petticoats to be worn with tailored suits and dresses of wool, silk and linen. These may be finished with a hem at the bottom, or with dust ruffle, and gathered or plaited flounce, according to the fashion in width for the outer skirt. Silks of delicate colors for wear with lingerie or silk afternoon and evening dresses admit of more decoration, the flounces being made of the silk, chiffon, crêpe Georgette or lace.”[Baldt 274]

Not Washable Materials
Brilliantine	According to Fabrics, brilliantine is a mixed-fiber fabric with cotton as the warp and alpaca or mohair as the weft. It is either plain-woven or has a twill weave.[Denny 14] Clothing for Women says that, “Brilliantine, like percale, has good qualities. It is durable, sheds dust readily, is wiry, holds its luster, is light in weight. Good grades of brilliantine can be successfully washed.”[Baldt 274]
Chiffon	The 1923 book Fabrics defines chiffon as “thin, gauzelike silk fabric with soft or sometimes stiff finish.”[Denny 26] Textiles for Early Victorian Clothing 1850-1880 says that chiffon is a type of crêpe and was made from “very fine silk yarn widely spaced to make a wispy, crinkled, sheer fabric."[Affleck and Herbaugh, 35] Plain Underwear says, “It may seem ridiculous to say that petticoats may be made of chiffon; yet many of them are to be seen. It appears, however, that such garments are intended for dancers, rather than for the home or the business woman. Sometimes chiffon petticoats measure several yards at the bottom, on which are used straight, fluffy ruffles of chiffon. The method of making chiffon petticoats is very similar to that employed for other petticoats, except that each seam must be stitched over paper so that there will be less danger of pulling or otherwise injuring the chiffon in stitching.”[Picken 22] In vintage light or sheer ensembles it is common to see a hem ruffle made of chiffon on the associated underskirt. Clothing for Women mentions chiffon as a flounce fabric.[Baldt 274]
Crêpe de Chine	An especially fine, light-weight silk crêpe whose surface is nearly smooth, and quite lustrous.[Affleck and Herbaugh, 35] Clothing for Women says that, “Pongee and crêpede chine are very durable, and retain their freshness for a long time, if carefully laundered.” [Baldt 274] Despite this, Clothing for Women lists it among the non-washable materials.
Flannel	In the Belle Époque, flannel meant either a light-weight wool flannel or a blend with a cotton warp and a woolen weft. Both are loosely woven with a soft nap.[Affleck and Herbaugh, 41](Flannelette was the term used for what we modernly call cotton flannel.) I only found this mentioned as a lining fabric for petticoats: “The ordinary woman will wear only combinations and a silk petticoat lined with flannel” (1894) [Cunnington, English Women’s Clothing, 423-4] and “I notice that nearly all the silk petticoats for wear this season have flannel or flannelette lining.”[Home Notes, 238, Nov. 23, 1895]
Glacé Silk or Shot Silk	A silk taffeta with the warp and the weft of different colors. The term glacé means “Glistening, smooth, resembling ice.”[Denny 61] It is listed as a fancy petticoat fabric that is flimsy and flounce-able.[Cunnington, A History of Underclothes, 213] A History of Underclothes gives an example of a glacé silk evening petticoat. “‘Evening petticoats are far more elaborate than the skirt without, and are cut with a train’ (1901). A ‘glacé silk petticoat with deep shaped flounce; trimmed with frills, ruchings and pin tucks, 31/11’ (1903) would be a very ordinary example.”[Cunnington, A History of Underclothes, 212]
Messaline	Fabrics says that messaline was a “light-weight satin, yarn-or piece dyed.” It was practically off the market in 1923. Clothing for Women (a 1916 sewing manual) says that “Taffeta, messalines and satins, while not so durable, shed the dust easily. They are very generally used. A wide range of colors is to be had, as well a black and white.” [Baldt 274]
Moirette	I was not able to find a description of this fabric. I is included in a list along with other fine petticoat fabrics, “The materials used were cambric, lawn, batiste, glacé silk, moirette, and in fact any fabric that was flimsy and flounce-able.”[Cunnington, A History of Underclothes, 213]
Moreen	I was not able to find a description of this fabric. However, English Women’s Clothing suggests it is used similarly to taffeta and satin, “Bright coloured silk or satin petticoats with a slightly gathered flounce (in winter lined with flannel), while moreen, at 2/9 a yard, is much used to produce a rustling effect (’92).”[Cunnington, A History of Underclothes, 423]
Percaline	Fabrics says that percaline is a “Fine, thin piece-dyed cotton lining material, sized [starched] and highly calendared [a non-permanent finish giving a smooth surface] or moiréd [another non-permanent finish creating the appearance of watermarks.]” Plain Undergarments describes it as not as attractive as silk taffeta, surah, and satin but it “gives excellent service. Sateen and percaline petticoats are often made with taffeta, satin, or messaline flounces, which finish makes such garments very satisfactory.”[Picken 22]
Silk Pongee (modernly called Shantung)	Fabrics says that the “Names Shantung and Pongee applied loosely to: (a) typical pongee made of wild silk, (b) machine-made cotton and silk combination, and (c) cotton imitation of pongee. Pongee is washable but loses much of its beauty after repeated launderings which bring out a luster. It should be ironed when almost dry to prevent stiffness, not natural to the fabric. Pongee may be dyed but usually fades in the sun.”[Denny 96-7] Clothing for Women says that, “Pongee and crêpede chine are very durable, and retain their freshness for a long time, if carefully laundered.” [Baldt 274]
Silk Satin	This is what we modernly think of as silk satin; the weight of the satin used varied with prevailing fashions. Plain Underwear says that satin is to be “preferred when beauty is the consideration [as opposed to practicality.]” [Picken 22] Clothing for Women says that, “Taffeta, messalines and satins, while not so durable, shed the dust easily. They are very generally used. A wide range of colors is to be had, as well a black and white.” [Baldt 274] Satin is probably the second most commonly referenced material for underskirts.
Silk Taffeta	This was exactly what we modernly think of as silk taffeta, a plain-woven silk. Taffeta is the most cited fabric for fancy underskirts: “For dressing up, women favored silk taffeta, which made an impressive rustle. The story is told of women inserting newspaper in their skirts to simulate the sound of taffeta. The obsession with the rustling petticoat caused a writer for The San Antonio Express in 1899 to make this observation: ‘Petticoats are more tempestuous and persuasive than ever and who wouldn’t scrimp and save to be able to rustle about in one of them.’ Young people of that time had vivid recollections of the pride with which their grandmothers and their mothers wore a silk taffeta petticoat when they dressed for special occasions. Even little children had fond memories of the fascinating rustle made when the ladies swished around in their long skirts.”[Mills 120-1] Plain Undergarments says that silk taffeta is to be “preferred when beauty is the consideration [as opposed to practicality.]” [Picken 22] Clothing for Women says, “Taffeta, messalines and satins, while not so durable, shed the dust easily. They are very generally used. A wide range of colors is to be had, as well a black and white.” [Baldt 274]
Silk and Wool Jersey	I was unable to find a period definition of silk and wool jersey, but the 1923 book Fabrics defines jersey as “a plain knitted, not ribbed” [Denny 70] fabric. Silk and wool jersey is not washable due to the wool content. Plain Undergarments says that this fabric is not as attractive as silk taffeta, surah, and satin but it “gives excellent service.” [Picken 22]
Surah	Fabrics defines Surah as a “soft twilled silk, often woven in plaid.”[Denny 116]Textiles for Early Victorian Clothing 1850-1880 gives a slightly different description, it says that surah is a soft, thin silk that drapes well; it is similar to foulard, but “surah was a lighter handkerchief weight … Both could have brocade figures or printed designs.”[Greene 43] Plain Underwear says that surah is to be “preferred when beauty is the consideration [as opposed to practicality.]” [Picken 22]

For touchable examples of many of these fabrics I highly recommend Textiles for Victorian and Edwardian Clothing 1880-1920 (although given current prices, you will probably want to try a library).

Beyond the recommendations above, Clothing for Women also gives the following table of suggestions for how to trim petticoats of different materials:

Materials	Suitable Trimmings [Baldt 271]
Berkeley cambric Long cloth Nainsook Cotton Crepe	Self-trimming Bands Flounces Embroidery Embroidered edging Embroidered insertion Embroidered beading Embroidered flouncing in soft finished cambric, Nainsook, or Swiss. Lace Lace edging (using Cluny, Torchon, Irish, Filet, French or German Valenciennes Lace) Lace insertion (using Cluny, Torchon, Irish, Filet, French or German Valenciennes Lace) Tatting Finishing braid Serpentine braid
Pique Cotton poplin	Embroidered scalloping
Sateen Percale Chambray	Ruffles or banding of same material Ruffles of heavy net with stitched bands of material
Silk Taffeta Silk Pongee Silk Crepe de chine Silk Satin Silk Messaline	Ruffles of same material Lace; shadow, etc. for evening wear
Brilliantine	Bias flounce of same material

All six of the petticoats we’re analyzing are washable. In fact, they’re all white cotton, and all but one of them is plain-woven. Based on the decoration on Bess Moser’s Petticoat and the Lacy Petticoat I think they were for more formal occasions then the others. I believe the Eyelet and the Cutwork Petticoats are “everyday” petticoats. I’m not sure about the other two:

Petticoat	Fabric	Decoration
Bess Moser’s Petticoat	A plain-weave cotton very similar in weight and hand to modern muslin (calico in the UK).	Cluny lace insertion and Cluny lace edging
Lacy Petticoat	The body of the petticoat is of slightly stiff plain-weave cotton similar to modern pre-washed muslin (i.e. when it still has the sizing in it). The flounce is made of lighter and softer plain-weave sheer cotton similar to modern cotton batiste.	The flounce is decorated with Valenciennes lace insertion and Valenciennes lace edging. It also has rows of embroidery.
Woven Lace Petticoat	A soft plain-weave cotton, similar to modern cotton lawn.	The ruffle is made of heavy lace.
Eyelet Petticoat	A plain-weave ivory cotton, slightly softer and lighter than modern muslin (calico in the UK).	An embroidered flounce (modernly called eyelet lace).
Embroidered Petticoat	The top of the petticoat is made of a soft cotton twill, the bottom of the petticoat (and the decorative flounce) is made of a plain-weave cotton similar to modern muslin (calico in the UK).	It is decorated with embroidered insertion and an embroidered flounce (modernly called eyelet lace).
Cutwork Petticoat	A light but slightly stiff (as if it were starched) plain-weave cotton which is slightly lighter then modern muslin (calico in the UK), although the drape is similar to modern unwashed muslin.	An embroidered flounce (modernly called eyelet lace).

Petticoat Lining

Occasionally in sewing manuals or in period fashion manuals I ran into references about lining a petticoat. None of the six petticoats we’re analyzing have linings of any sort. However, there are a couple of reasons that a Belle Époque woman might have considered when contemplating lining a petticoat:

1. In the mid-1890s adding more stiffness to the petticoat would probably result in a more desirable shape. However, this is never mentioned at all as a reason for lining petticoats in the period sources, although the following quote suggests it:

“The ordinary woman will wear only combinations and a silk petticoat lined with flannel, or if a cambric petticoat an underpetticoat of silk with woolen lining” (1894) [Cunnington, English Women’s Clothing, 423-4]

2. To increase the durability of the petticoat

“I notice that nearly all the silk petticoats for wear this season have flannel or flannelette lining. There are two advantages in this. First, it makes the silk stronger, and as it preserves the back part of the silk from friction, it prevents it wearing out; and, secondly, it is warmer. We all know the ideal silk for petticoats is thin and almost papery in quality, for the reason that it gives a far better frou-frou than the richer kinds. You will be glad to know that a woolen lining in no way detracts from this latter quality, otherwise, in spite of the additional warmth that it gives, it would not be for one moment considered by the women of fashion.”[Home Notes, 238, Nov. 23, 1895]

3. Warmth (this is the reason most frequently sited in period sources)

“To those ladies who cannot afford silk I would say do not despair, for moirette makes charming garments, and is produced in such beautiful colours that it is hard to tell it from silk. Moirette is warmer than silk, and, in the ordinary way, I do not think it requires lining. Of course, if a lady feels the cold much and likes thick skirts, she might do this; but I think it would be more comfortable without, for the stiffness of the material, added to the thickness of the lining, would make the skirt a little cumbersome.”[Home Notes, 238, Nov. 23, 1895]

4. In the later sewing manuals there is a bit of a preoccupation with not revealing a woman’s legs when she stands in the sunlight. A remedy recommended for this problem is lining (or partially lining) the petticoat.

“One advantage of either the two-or the three-piece petticoat is that an extra front gore may be put in so as to make it suitable in case only one petticoat is to be worn with a thin dress; that is, the front of the petticoat may be made of two thicknesses of material so as to provide enough thickness at the front to make one petticoat take the place of two. A woman should always be careful to wear a petticoat of such thickness as to prevent her shape from being visible though her garments when she stands in the sunlight. Women have been severely criticized for displaying their forms in this way, and chiefly because they make the mistake, frequently though thoughtlessness, of wearing petticoats that are too thin.”[Picken 23]

Since by 1916 when that advice was written, a woman could get away with only wearing one petticoat (or even none!), I’m not sure that this concern for modesty applies to the occasional references to petticoat linings in the 1890s and 1900s. However, as I said, none of the six petticoats we’re analyzing is lined; the advice regarding durability and warmth advice may only apply to the underskirt layer.

Bibliography

Affleck, Diane L Fagan, and Karen J. Herbaugh. Textiles for Victorian and Edwardian Clothing 1880-1920. A Workbook of Swatches and Information. Arlington, Virginia: Sally Queen & Associates, 2004.

Baldt, Laura I. Clothing for Women. Selection, Design, Construction. A Practical Manual for School and Home. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1916.

Cunnington, C. Willett, and Phillis Cunnington. A History of Underclothes. New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1992.

Denny, Grace G. Fabrics. Definitions of Fabrics, Practical Textile Tests, Classification of Fabrics. Chicago: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1936. (Original copyright 1923 under the title "Fabrics and How to Know Them" by J.B. Lippincott Company.)

Greene, Susan W. Textiles for Early Victorian Clothing 1850-1880. A Workbook of Swatches & Information. Arlington, Virginia: Sally Queen & Associates, 2002.

Grimble, Frances, Ed. The Edwardian Modiste. San Francisco: Lavolta Press, 1997. (This contains a partial republication of The Complete Dressmaker, edited by Clara E. Laughlin, 1907)

Grimble, Frances, Ed. The Voice of Fashion. San Francisco: Lavolta Press, 1998.

Mills, Betty J., Calico Chronicle. Lubbock, TX: Texas Tech Press, 1985.

Perrot, Philippe. Fashioning the Bourgeoisie. A History of Clothing in the Nineteenth Century. Trans. Richard Bienvenu. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press,1994.

Picken, Mary Brooke, Plain Undergarments. Scranton, PA: Woman's Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences, Inc., 1920. (Original copyright 1916 under the title "Underwear and Lingerie" by International Educational Publishing Company.)

Severa, Joan. Dressed for the Photographer. Ordinary Americans & Fashion 1840-1900. Kent, OH: The Kent State University Press, 1995.

Home Notes, Volume 8. October 19th to January 11th 1895-96. London: C. Arthur Pearson. 1895 & 1896.

The Lady's Realm, Volume 12. May 1902 to October 1902. London: Hutchinson and Co. 1902.